Universal and Context-Specific Development
Universal and Context-Specific Development
In some cultures, mathematical concepts are mastered in school classrooms but in others through experiential learning, such as selling goods in street markets (Kisker et al., 2012; Sleeter, 2016). This suggests that math skills can be mastered in different ways in across cultures and introduces our last issue: The universal and context-specific development issue concerns whether there is one path of development or several. Some theorists argue that despite what look like differences in development, there is only one fundamental developmental process for everyone. According to this view, differences in development are simply variations on the same fundamental process in much the same way cars as different as a Fiat, a Honda, and a Lexus are all products of a car-making manufacturing process.
The alternative view is that differences among people are not simply variations on a theme. Advocates of this view argue that human development is inextricably intertwined with the context within which it occurs. A person’s development is a product of complex interaction with the environment, and that interaction is not fundamentally the same in all environments. Rather, each environment has its own set of unique procedures that shape development, just as the “recipes” for different cars yield vehicles as different as a MINI Cooper and a stretch limousine.
As is the case for the nature-nurture and continuity-discontinuity issues, the result is a blend; individual development reflects both universal and context-specific influences. For example, the order of development of physical skills in infancy is essentially the same in all cultures. But how those skills are focused or encouraged in daily life differs.
Putting all three issues together and using personality to illustrate, we can ask how the development of personality is shaped by interactions between heredity and environment, is continuous or discontinuous, and develops in much the same way around the world. To answer these kinds of questions, we need to look at the forces that combine to shape human development.
Each person is a unique combination of these forces. To see why each force is important, think about whether a mother, for example, decides to breastfeed her infant. The mother’s decision will be based on biological variables (e.g., the quality and amount of milk she produces), attitudes about the virtues of breastfeeding, the influences of other people (e.g., the father, the mother’s own mother, peers), and cultural traditions and societal norms about appropriate ways to feed infants. In addition, the decision will reflect the mother’s age and stage of life. Only by focusing on all these forces can we have a complete view of the decision.
One useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human development is with the biopsychosocial framework. Figure 1.1 emphasizes that each of the forces of the biopsychosocial framework interacts with the others to make up development. Let’s consider the different elements of the biopsychosocial model in more detail.
Biological Forces: Genetics and Health
Prenatal development, brain maturation, puberty, and physical aging are examples of the results of biological forces. Underlying most biological processes is our individual genetic code. For example, many children resemble their biological parents, which shows biological-genetic influences on development. But biological forces are not only genetic; they also include the effects of such things as diet and exercise. Collectively, biological forces can be viewed as providing the raw material necessary and as setting the boundary conditions (in the case of genetics) for development.
Psychological Forces: Known by Our Behavior
Psychological forces seem familiar because they are the ones used most often to describe the characteristics of a person. For example, think about how you describe yourself to others. Most of us say that we have a nice personality and are intelligent, honest, self-confident, or something similar. Concepts such as these reflect psychological forces.
In general, psychological forces are all the cognitive, emotional, personality, perceptual, and related factors that help define us as individuals and that influence behavior. Psychological forces have received the most attention of the three main developmental
